https://doi.org/10.15255/KUI.2025.050
Published: Kem. Ind. 75 (7-8) (2026) 395–404
Paper reference number: KUI-50/2025
Paper type: Review
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Biological Characteristics of Viruses, Repurposed Drugs, and Strategies for the Removal of Pharmaceutical Residues from the Environment

B. Preksavec Prišlin, B. Babić Visković and D. Ašperger

Abstract

Viruses (lat. virus – poison) represent an extremely diverse group of biological entities with numerous morphological and functional variability. They are found in virtually all ecosystems on Earth – from flowing and stagnant waters (lakes, seas, rivers), beneath the Earth's surface, in all types of soil, deserts, and in everything that surrounds us. Viruses are among the most successful types of parasites and have been isolated from representatives of all known forms of life, ranging from the smallest single-celled bacteria to the largest mammal. On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a global pandemic caused by the coronavirus disease (COVID-19), first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, China. COVID-19 represents the third zoonotic epidemic of the twenty-first century. At the beginning of the pandemic, no vaccines or specific therapeutic agents were available; therefore, “repurposed” drugs, previously used to treat similar viral diseases, were employed. Additionally, the use of medications such as antibiotics, analgesics, anticancer drugs, antidepressants, antipyretics, antiviral agents, increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. As a consequence, these substances have been detected in higher concentrations in the environment, particularly in wastewater, where they are regarded as new contaminants. Existing systems, particularly wastewater treatment facilities, are currently unable to completely remove pharmaceutical residues. Technologies for the removal of pharmaceuticals are classified into three groups: physical, chemical, and biological wastewater treatment processes. To improve their efficiency, these facilities require further upgrading. Numerous approaches for upgrading wastewater treatment systems have been proposed in the literature. However, none of the advanced processes achieves 100 % removal of all contaminants.

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Keywords

viruses, repurposed drugs, water, environment, new contaminants, wastewater treatment